After a hole opened up in the fuselage of Southwest Airlines flight 2294 from Nashville to Baltimore, there has been a lot of talk about cabin depressurization and structural failure. The jury is still out as to the cause of this failure, but the incident does bring the topic of depressurization and emergency descents to the forefront. So what happens when the airplane loses cabin pressure, and what is a pilot to do?

A hole in the tail of a Southwest Airlines 737

These emergencies are real attention getters. Pilots will physically feel a “kick in the chest” as their lungs adjust to the change in pressure. Cabin temperature will instantly drop well below freezing while moisture in the air condenses to form a thick fog within the airplane. Amid these distractions, the pilot’s number one priority is to retain consciousness by donning an oxygen mask, then to initiate an emergency descent.

Complete structural failure of a 737-200 in Hawaii.

Not knowing the cause of depressurization, it’s a good idea to assume the worst: structural failure. It may be tempting to dive down at maximum speed, but any increase in airspeed will increase stress on the airframe. Say you are flying at 300 knots when the event occurs. Since the airframe hasn’t completely ripped apart at 300 knots, you must be “safe” at that speed. Consider that to be your new never-exceed speed. Chop the power, extend flight spoilers (if you have them), and pitch down to maintain no greater than 300 knots.

For those of us working as professional pilots in pressurized aircraft, the decisions are black and white. Commercial operators train their pilots in procedures for cabin depressurization. From a pilot’s perspective, it is as simple as following a mental checklist, backed up by the appropriate emergency checklist at a later time.

Last week, I stressed the importance of taking your time when faced with emergencies. Although pilots should never rush through any task, there are some emergencies that require an immediate response. These memory-based checklists are known as immediate action items and can make the difference in a time-critical situation.

What Immediate Action Items Are

Immediate action items are trained responses to specific emergencies. These responses are airplane specific and usually take the form of a mental checklist. Most professional pilots are trained to recite immediate action items verbatim and must do so on recurrent checkrides.

Immediate action items are not full checklists. Although they are systematic, a memory item rarely covers more than the first few items of the appropriate emergency checklist. Pilots perform immediate action items from memory, then follow it up with the full checklist.

An Example Immediate Action Item

Suppose you were flying along in a regional jet at 32,000 feet when smoke suddenly fills the cockpit. This is a serious time-critical emergency, and it would be beneficial to have an immediate response ready.

Crew Masks / Smoke Goggles … Don
Crew Communication … Establish

This response would be instant and automatic. Now the actual emergency checklist will be a good deal longer, but the immediate action items will get pilots started with the most critical bits.

Immediate action items are common in the world of professional aviation, but pilots of small G.A. aircraft can develop their own immediate responses. This can be as simple as thinking about a few worst-case scenarios and planning your first response. You’ve probably already got one down: suppose you lose power in a Cessna 152. If you thought “Airspeed: best glide,” then you’ve already got that one down.

Why Practice Immediate Action Items

As a pilot it is beneficial to rehearse immediate action items on a regular basis. This strengthens muscle-memory and helps to make rare emergency procedures habitual. As an added benefit, memory items will boost confidence and help the pilot to remain calm while reacting to stressful situations.

Your own personal immediate action items can be as formal or informal as you like (unless you are a professional pilot and your company says otherwise). The goal is to have a specific plan of action for a few time-critical situations.

By developing your own immediate action items, you can increase your effectiveness in time-critical emergencies. Immediate responses should not be construed as rushing through the checklist. Take your time through the memory items, then back it up with the appropriate emergency checklist. If you forget your immediate action items, don’t make it up or muddle through it. Pull the appropriate paper-checklist and follow it step-by step.

The first priority of any pilot is to fly the airplane. Even during the most time critical emergency, aircraft control must be maintained. Nevermind the flashing red lights, the best way to overcome adversity in the cockpit is to remain calm. In the disco-esque words of Michael Penniman: “relax, take it easy!”

Prioritize

Emergencies can force pilots into a “do something fast” mindset, but our first impulse may not neccessarily be the best course of action. As John King said, “there’s no problem you can’t make worse by going too fast”. Continue to fly the airplane and consider the situation.

Often, in-flight emergencies are accompanied by related systems failures and abnormalities. Prioritize these issues and deal with each abnormality individually in order of importance (time permitting, of course). Although this approach may seem somewhat myopic, it has one distinct advantage: pilot workload is kept to a minimum.

Ignorance is Bliss

Sometimes the best course of action is to ignore the problem. Think big-picture: never let any emergency allow you to compromise safety of flight. Nowhere is this more important than during the most critical phases of flight, namely takeoff and landing.

For example, last January I experienced an APU overtemp warning in the CRJ on short final. Although our procedure is to call for the emergency checklist, I felt that the safest course of action was to continue the approach and land the airplane. My captain concurred and we landed uneventfully and resolved the issue on the ground.

You’ve already been trained to do this. If you lose power on takeoff, what do you do? The automatic response is “land straight ahead”. This is just another case where it may be necessary to ignore the emergency in favor of safely flying the aircraft.

As in any ADM situation, judgement is key. Never underestimate the importance of flying the airplane. Keep your head straight and take your time dealing with issues one-at-a-time. Relax.

There are a handful of emergencies that may require impulsive and immediate action. Check back for next week’s discussion on immediate action items.

Proficient pilots regularly vary their landings by alternating between normal, soft field, and short field landings. However, there is one important landing that is commonly overlooked: the deadstick landing. Think back; when was the last time you chopped the power and glided the airplane all the way to the runway? Do you feel proficient enough to stick it in a small bean field should the engine fail on your next flight? If the answer is no, then it may be prudent to practice those emergency procedures.

With a failed engine the airplane will still fly, however a descent and landing become immediate and mandatory. It is up to the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft and fly it to the best available landing field. Sometimes that field will not be an airport.

Although the engine failure event is rare, the high stakes of this situation demand proficiency and confidence. Consequences can be dire if the pilot overshoots or undershoots the intended landing point.

So how does the average pilot maintain proficiency with engine failure procedures? The answer is quite simple: practice simulated engine failures regularly.

How To Safely Practice Engine Failures On Your Own:

1. Fly a normal traffic pattern and enter the downwind leg.
2. Abeam your intended landing point (say the 1’000 foot mark), reduce power to idle.
3. Treat it as an actual engine failure:
   1. Airspeed: Best Glide
   2. Best field: Select (although you have already done this, always go through the motions)
   3. Checklist: Simulate performance your engine failure checklist (time-permitting, of course)
   4. Declare the Emergency: Simulate declaring an emergency.
   5. Engine: Simulate securing of the engine and pretend to crack the airplane door open.
4. Maneuver and configure your airplane to ensure a touchdown at your predetermined landing point.
5. If at any point the landing is in doubt, add power. Better safe than sorry.

Always consider area traffic when practicing simulated engine failures. Make your normal radio calls and keep your eyes and ears open for local traffic.

If you are having difficulty landing close to your intended touchdown zone, request a lesson on 180° power-off accuracy approaches from a CFI. All commercial pilots are required to demonstrate proficiency in the 180° power-off accuracy approach and landing, which is a deadstick landing beyond and within 200 feet of a designated point. Pilots are required to perform this maneuver in order to develop the judgement and energy management skills required to fly the airplane to a safe landing without power.

It is always a good idea to mix those landings up, but don’t neglect the deadstick landing. This is the sure fire save-your-life maneuver, and you ought to maintain proficiency with it.

The Pilot / Controller Glossary in the AIM defines minimum fuel as an indication that an aircraft’s fuel supply has reached a state where, upon reaching the destination, it can accept little or no delay. It is important to keep in mind that a minimum fuel advisory is not an emergency; it is only an advisory that an emergency situation is possible should any undue delay occur. But when should you declare minimum fuel?

The Federal Aviation Regulations (14-CFR) shed little light on the matter. 14 CFR 91.151 outlines fuel requirements for beginning a flight under VFR conditions. Pilots are required to have enough fuel to fly to their destination at normal cruising speed, then fly for an additional 30 minutes by day, or 45 minutes by night in an airplane.

§ 91.151   Fuel requirements for flight in VFR conditions.

(a) No person may begin a flight in an airplane under VFR conditions unless (considering wind and forecast weather conditions) there is enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing and, assuming normal cruising speed—

(1) During the day, to fly after that for at least 30 minutes; or

(2) At night, to fly after that for at least 45 minutes.

(b) No person may begin a flight in a rotorcraft under VFR conditions unless (considering wind and forecast weather conditions) there is enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing and, assuming normal cruising speed, to fly after that for at least 20 minutes.

For IFR flights, 14 CFR 91.167 requires that pilots take off with enough fuel to fly to the destination, continue to the alternate airport (when an alternate is required), then fly for an additional 45 minutes in an airplane, all at normal cruising speed.

§ 91.167   Fuel requirements for flight in IFR conditions.

(a) No person may operate a civil aircraft in IFR conditions unless it carries enough fuel (considering weather reports and forecasts and weather conditions) to—

(1) Complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing;

(2) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, fly from that airport to the alternate airport; and

(3) Fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed or, for helicopters, fly after that for 30 minutes at normal cruising speed.

(b) Paragraph (a)(2) of this section does not apply if:

(1) Part 97 of this chapter prescribes a standard instrument approach procedure to, or a special instrument approach procedure has been issued by the Administrator to the operator for, the first airport of intended landing; and

(2) Appropriate weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate the following:

(i) For aircraft other than helicopters. For at least 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival, the ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation and the visibility will be at least 3 statute miles.

(ii) For helicopters. At the estimated time of arrival and for 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival, the ceiling will be at least 1,000 feet above the airport elevation, or at least 400 feet above the lowest applicable approach minima, whichever is higher, and the visibility will be at least 2 statute miles.

This is all good and well, but we are no closer to quantifying precisely when to declare minimum fuel. Enter the airlines: those aviation leaders who improve safety by documenting each eventuality of a flight within their FAA approved manuals. You have not flown “by the book” until you have flown for an airline.

Indeed, a quick look at my company’s manuals reveals an exact time and procedure for declaring minimum fuel. It states that a minimum fuel condition exists only after two conditions are met:

1. The expected fuel on arrival based on the flight’s expected route will only allow for 30 minutes of flight after arrival until fuel exhaustion.
2. All available options to reduce fuel required have been used, such as slowing down or changing altitude to reduce fuel burn, or flying a more direct route to the airport.

Keep in mind that these two conditions are an airline’s policy for IFR flights, but I feel that they are a useful and conservative target for any IFR traffic approaching a fuel situation. VFR pilots may be able to skimp a bit more, say 20 minutes fuel reserve, since they have no need to shoot time consuming instrument approaches.

Ideally pilots will travel with a plentiful reserve of fuel, precluding the need to declare minimum fuel, but weight limitations and operational needs will occasionally force us to operate closer to the margin. Always maintain awareness of your fuel situation and do not hesitate to declare minimum fuel should the need arise.