Ignorance is bliss, at least that’s what Shakespeare said, but ignorance can get you busted in the aviation world. As of June 30th the FAA has implemented some minor changes to the taxi instructions we all receive at towered airports. Specifically, the FAA has removed the “taxi to” phraseology. Keep reading to find out what this means to you.

Let’s consider a few examples. Suppose you just landed at a towered airport. In the past, ATC would typically state something like “turn right next taxiway, taxi via bravo to the ramp.” Suppose there is a crossing runway 13 across taxiway bravo. Now, the taxi instruction must come in one of these two forms:

• “turn right next taxiway, taxi via bravo, hold short of runway one three.”
• “turn right next taxiway, taxi via bravo, cross runway one three to the ramp.”

As you can see, pilots still follow ATC’s instructions to a tee, but they need to be extra mindful of crossing runways and stop the plane prior to crossing any time a doubt exists.

For further details, AOPA has published a great video explanation of the rule change. And for those of you looking for the official line – check out FAA Notice N JO 7110.528.

Yesterday I crossed the proverbial railroad tracks to see how the other half lives. I stepped out of my fancy flight deck and took a tour of Memphis TRACON and tower during Delta Airline’s five o’clock arrivals. What I saw gave me a greater appreciation of the delicate dance of the national air traffic control system.

Memphis TRACON had the feeling of a sports bar on game day. In the corner were big-screen monitors that everybody could glance at to get the big picture: weather radar, a string of airplanes along each arrival corridor, and a nifty one dimensional view to convey aircraft spacing as clearly as possible.

Then there were the rows of controllers casually seated before their respective scopes. These guys made it look easy. In a single breath one controller held a conversation with me, gave a descent clearance to one airplane, and made an inside joke to another controller. Everything looked so effortless.

What an easy job! At least that was my thought until Sean began to give us the play-by-play. As it turns out, there’s an awful lot to keep track of when you are responsible for sequencing an endless line of airplanes converging into one runway. Even after flying in this environment for a few years, my mind was already approaching overload. Continue reading →

The task that befuddles most  instrument pilots in training doesn’t involve flying at all! Prior to taxi, and sometimes prior to engine start, we need to copy and read back an IFR clearance. This is generally the most complicated set of instructions issued by Air Traffic Control throughout the whole flight, and it usually comes fast enough to make any pilot’s head spin! But if you know what to listen for, you can copy even the most confusing clearances like a pro.

ATC Phrase	Shorthand / Symbol
Clear	C
Fly Runway Heading	RH
Turn Right/Left Heading #	← 330 or → 030
Climb and Maintain 3,000 Feet	↑ 3

There is no rule for ATC shorthand. Use whatever system makes sense to you, and change it as needed. Just make sure you can read it afterwords!

Be Prepared

When you make the initial call to pick up an IFR clearance, you have to be ready for it. Like I said, some controllers will read your clearance fast, so make sure you have a good pen and a piece of paper ready before keying the microphone.

Know the Format

In almost all cases, IFR clearances are issued in the same order. This makes readback habitual (easy) once you get the hang of it. For this reason, a lot of CFI’s teach the CRAFT acronym.

It’s easy to use, just write CRAFT on your kneeboard vertically and copy your clearance in the order given:

Clearance Fix (usually the destination airport)
Route (typically “AF” for as-filed)
Altitude
Frequency (departure frequency to call once airborne)
Transponder

Putting it All Together

Suppose you receive the following clearance:

“Cessna 12345 cleared to Nashville as filed, fly runway heading, climb and maintain three thousand, expect seven thousand one zero minutes after departure, departure frequency one two four point six five, squawk two seven one three.”

Your kneeboard should look something like this:

C BNA
R AF RH
A ↑3     7     10
F 124.65
T 2713

Practice Makes Perfect

As I said, these clearances come fast and it takes some time getting used to the format. Luckily, there is a resource for web-savvy pilots to gain some practice. Visit LiveATC.net, a website that streams live air traffic control audio from major airports over the web. Try listening to Boston clearance  delivery with a paper and pencil. Copy and mentally read back clearances as they come and compare your response to that of other pilots! It’s a great way to gain months of free experience for just a few hours at home.

If you’re still having trouble, don’t be discouraged. Clearances are a common bump in the road for most pilots: it will all come to you with a little time and patience.

It’s so easy to feel rushed when taxiing around a busy towered airport. After receiving that initial taxi clearance, you are on a mission: get to the runway via taxiways Mike, Tango, give way to the Cessna on Juliet, then Juliet to 36-Center. Right, off we go. But sometimes things happen that will throw a wrench in the ground controller’s plan, and that’s OK!

It’s that simple.

Ground controllers are used to these sorts of requests, and they can be quite accommodating. You can usually expect a new taxi clearance to get you out of the way unless the airport has a run-up  / de-ice pad at the end of the runway. Once you are ready to go, call ground and let them know your location and intent to continue.

This may seem like common sense to you, and it should be. But a lot of pilots (including a younger, less experienced version of myself) feel pressured to follow ATC instructions to a tee. And if you get task-saturated, then so-be-it.

Unfortunately, this attitude only compromises safety of flight. Taxiing heads-down is always a bad idea, even in a two pilot flight crew. Furthermore, if you start out behind the airplane, imagine how far behind you’ll be in the air. It’s best to come to a stop and get everything straightened out before proceeding to the runway. Give yourself a head-start and stay ahead of the airplane!

Cruising along at altitude, air traffic control clears you to “descend at pilot’s discretion to 10,000 feet, contact Atlanta Center on 125.8.” Being a fuel conscious pilot, you decide to remain at cruise altitude a bit longer when the new controller tells you to descend at maintain 13,000. Here’s the dilemma: are you still cleared down to ten thousand feet, or do you have to stay put at thirteen? 

Most of the time, this is a non-issue as ATC typically needs you to descend anyway. At some point in the descent, before reaching your issued altitude, controllers will likely issue a clearance to the original discretionary altitude (or lower). Other times, controllers are mindful of the original clearance and will reissue it with your new clearance.

This sounds something like:

“Descend now and maintain one three thousand, pilot’s discretion to one zero thousand.”

This descent clearance is a no brainer: start down to thirteen, then drop to ten thousand at your leisure.

Remember, a new clearance always cancels the preceding clearance. When in doubt ask the controller for clarification (they don’t bite!).

The Pilot / Controller Glossary in the AIM defines minimum fuel as an indication that an aircraft’s fuel supply has reached a state where, upon reaching the destination, it can accept little or no delay. It is important to keep in mind that a minimum fuel advisory is not an emergency; it is only an advisory that an emergency situation is possible should any undue delay occur. But when should you declare minimum fuel?

The Federal Aviation Regulations (14-CFR) shed little light on the matter. 14 CFR 91.151 outlines fuel requirements for beginning a flight under VFR conditions. Pilots are required to have enough fuel to fly to their destination at normal cruising speed, then fly for an additional 30 minutes by day, or 45 minutes by night in an airplane.

§ 91.151   Fuel requirements for flight in VFR conditions.

(a) No person may begin a flight in an airplane under VFR conditions unless (considering wind and forecast weather conditions) there is enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing and, assuming normal cruising speed—

(1) During the day, to fly after that for at least 30 minutes; or

(2) At night, to fly after that for at least 45 minutes.

(b) No person may begin a flight in a rotorcraft under VFR conditions unless (considering wind and forecast weather conditions) there is enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing and, assuming normal cruising speed, to fly after that for at least 20 minutes.

For IFR flights, 14 CFR 91.167 requires that pilots take off with enough fuel to fly to the destination, continue to the alternate airport (when an alternate is required), then fly for an additional 45 minutes in an airplane, all at normal cruising speed.

§ 91.167   Fuel requirements for flight in IFR conditions.

(a) No person may operate a civil aircraft in IFR conditions unless it carries enough fuel (considering weather reports and forecasts and weather conditions) to—

(1) Complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing;

(2) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, fly from that airport to the alternate airport; and

(3) Fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed or, for helicopters, fly after that for 30 minutes at normal cruising speed.

(b) Paragraph (a)(2) of this section does not apply if:

(1) Part 97 of this chapter prescribes a standard instrument approach procedure to, or a special instrument approach procedure has been issued by the Administrator to the operator for, the first airport of intended landing; and

(2) Appropriate weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate the following:

(i) For aircraft other than helicopters. For at least 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival, the ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation and the visibility will be at least 3 statute miles.

(ii) For helicopters. At the estimated time of arrival and for 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival, the ceiling will be at least 1,000 feet above the airport elevation, or at least 400 feet above the lowest applicable approach minima, whichever is higher, and the visibility will be at least 2 statute miles.

This is all good and well, but we are no closer to quantifying precisely when to declare minimum fuel. Enter the airlines: those aviation leaders who improve safety by documenting each eventuality of a flight within their FAA approved manuals. You have not flown “by the book” until you have flown for an airline.

Indeed, a quick look at my company’s manuals reveals an exact time and procedure for declaring minimum fuel. It states that a minimum fuel condition exists only after two conditions are met:

1. The expected fuel on arrival based on the flight’s expected route will only allow for 30 minutes of flight after arrival until fuel exhaustion.
2. All available options to reduce fuel required have been used, such as slowing down or changing altitude to reduce fuel burn, or flying a more direct route to the airport.

Keep in mind that these two conditions are an airline’s policy for IFR flights, but I feel that they are a useful and conservative target for any IFR traffic approaching a fuel situation. VFR pilots may be able to skimp a bit more, say 20 minutes fuel reserve, since they have no need to shoot time consuming instrument approaches.

Ideally pilots will travel with a plentiful reserve of fuel, precluding the need to declare minimum fuel, but weight limitations and operational needs will occasionally force us to operate closer to the margin. Always maintain awareness of your fuel situation and do not hesitate to declare minimum fuel should the need arise.

Contrary to popular belief, air traffic controllers do not have hooves and pitchforks. Nothing befumbles private pilots more than communicating with air traffic control. Many of us simply don’t fly ‘in the system’ often enough to be comfortable with the lingo, while others have a genuine fear of messing up a radio call. Read on for a few simple tips to help you in your communication with ATC.

1. Don’t Rush. Radio calls are supposed to be concise, but they should also be clear. Don’t talk at 100 miles per hour.
2. Be Concise. Leave off unnecessary words and phrases. Instead of “Approach, 456TA ‘with you at’ three-thousand-five-hundred,” say “Approach, 456TA, three-thousand-five-hundred.”
3. Think. Before checking in or making a request, think about what you are going to say and phrase it in your mind.
4. Listen. Before checking in on a new frequency or making a request, stop and listen so as not to step on anyone else.
5. Respond Quickly. When a controller issues a new heading or altitude, respond quickly before the controller has a chance to forget the exact clearance that was issued.
6. Carry a Pen and Paper. Always have a pen and paper on hand to copy ATIS and amendments to your route.
7. Ask. Never be afraid to ask for clarification if you have the slightest doubt about an ATC instruction or clearance.
8. Use Reminders. Always set your bugs to your newly assigned heading and altitude. If your airplane doesn’t have one, write it down.
9. Be Honest. If you are unable to comply with an instruction for any reason, let the controller know.
10. Remember Who’s Boss. You are the PIC. Never accept a clearance that will endanger the safety of flight or lead to a violation of the FARs.

Last week’s post about VFR flight followings raised a few questions. This week, lets take a look at the rules surrounding participation in a flight following.

The rules of flight followings are actually quite simple to obey. So long as you keep your head out the window and keep ATC advised of what you are doing you will be set.

Once you have requested a VFR flight following, it is important to keep in mind that you are still VFR traffic. Don’t fool yourself into thinking that you are subject to the same rights and privileges of IFR traffic. You are not. VFR cruising altitudes, cloud clearance and visibility requirements still apply. Furthermore, controllers will provide traffic advisories on a workload permitting basis only. This means that you are still expected to see and avoid other traffic. Keep those eyes out the window!

According to the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), “pilots should monitor the assigned frequency at all times“. Once you have requested a flight following, it is important to remain on your assigned frequency. It is perfectly acceptable to leave frequency to monitor ATIS or contact a flight service station (FSS), so long as air traffic control is advised ahead of time.

On initial contact, air traffic control will typically assign a transponder code to participating aircraft. You are expected to maintain the assigned squawk code for the duration the flight following. Air traffic control will normally advise pilots to “squawk VFR” after a flight following has been cancelled.

The AIM goes on to state that “pilots should also inform the controller when changing VFR cruising altitudes“. This does not mean that you will need a clearance to change altitudes, you simply need to advise the controller of your intentions. After all, this is a VFR flight following, not an IFR flight plan.

Although the FAR/AIM makes no mention of this, it is courteous to advise controllers of any unplanned changes in heading. Suppose you need to divert 20 degrees left for weather; it would be wise to let the controller know that “Cherokee 54321 is deviating 20 left for weather”.

The rules of VFR flight followings can be summed up in one simple sentence: keep ATC in the loop. Keep your assigned transponder code set so that the controllers can see you. Monitor the appropriate frequency to maintain communication with ATC. Always advise controllers of any changes in your flight path, and please keep your eyes open for traffic.

One of the most underutilized air traffic control services is the VFR flight following. Many pilots feel intimidated by air traffic control, while others simply don’t want the perceived hassle of a flight following. There are yet others who simply don’t understand what a powerful tool the flight following can be. Read on to see what you’ve been missing.

1. Free TCAS
   Air traffic control provides traffic alerts to participating VFR aircraft on a workload permitting basis. By requesting a flight following, you are asking an all seeing eye in the sky to call nearby traffic to your attention. This service is absolutely free, which sure beats the $10,000 to $24,000 cost of an onboard TCAS system!
2. Free Weather Radar
   Air traffic control will notify all traffic to any hazardous weather through Center Weather Advisories (CWA). It is also fair game to ask the controller if he is seeing any weather up ahead. Results will vary from one controller to the next, but any input is valuable to your aeronautical decision making process.
3. Altimeter Updates
   Remember the old addage, “from high to low, look out below”? For traffic seperation and terrain clearance, it is crucial to keep your altimeter set to the local setting throughout your flight. On a long cross country, that may include a full 1″ of adjustment which equates to a whopping 1,000 feet of altitude! As you check in to each new frequency, the center controller will give you the local altimter setting. No more monitoring random AWOS frequencies!
4. Somebody Knows Where You Are
   As much as we hate to admit it, accidents do happen. If you have to put your airplane down in a bean field, the center controllers will have a pretty good idea of where you landed. In a life or death situation, that knowledge could save a lot of time.
5. You’re on the Right Frequency
   If you need to declare an emergency and you are already on a flight following, there is no need to fumble with the radio in search of 121.50. You are already in contact with a controller, and can declare the emergency immediately. Now you have more time to focus on flying the airplane.




6. Polish Those Radio Skills
   By flying around on a VFR flight following, you are constantly in communication with an air traffic controller. That means checking in and switching frequencies. As an extra bonus, you get to listen to all the IFR traffic receiving vectors, climb, and descent clearances. In no time, you’ll be sounding like pro!
7. Common Courtesy
   If you are going to be poking around near a major airport, it is common courtesy to get a flight following. This way, you have a squawk code which identifies you to the approach controllers and keeps you out of the way local airline traffic.
8. Controlled Airspace Made Easy
   Two-way radio communication is required to enter class C and D airspace. On a VFR flight following, you are already in communication and can traverse the airspace with ease. Keep in mind that you will still need a clearance to enter class B airspace.
9. Lost? No Problem
   We are all trained to climb, confess, and compy in the event that we misplace our aircraft in flight. Herein lies the problem, if you truly are lost, just who do you confess to? Which frequency will actually get you in touch with a controller? On a flight following, you are on frequency with a controller, who can give you a quick vector to get you back on course.

So how do you request a VFR flight following? Its simple, just call the nearest center, approach, or departure control frequency. State your N-number, position, altitude, intentions, and let them know that you are requesting a VFR flight following. For example:

“Atlanta center, Warrior 32421 one-zero miles south of Chattanooga at four-thousand. Direct Hunstville. Request VFR flight following.”

You can find the right frequency in the airport facility directory entry for a nearby airport under the Communications section. Center frequencies are also listed in the margin on sectional charts.